What Are The Impacts Of An Earthquake Environmental Sciences Essay

What Are The Impacts Of An Earthquake Environmental Sciences Essay Tectonic earthquake is the most common form of earthquake that occurs in various parts of the world. The main cause for triggering an earthquake is due to the movement of different tectonic plates. The surface of earth is made up of a number of rigid parts called tectonic plates and is in continuous movement with each other. These plate movements are driven by forces deep within the earth. There are two types of tectonic earthquakes; they are (a) Inter plate earthquakes or Plate boundary earthquakes and (b) Intra plate earthquake or Mid Plate earthquakes [ASC India web] Inter plate earthquakes This type of earthquake occurs along the narrow zones that follows the boundaries of the tectonic plate. This type of earthquake is caused by the interaction of the two or more tectonic plates. There are two prominent bands of Inter-Plate boundaries in the world. One band begins from the western Mediterranean covering southern Europe, North Africa and extending through the Middle East and ending in the Himalayas. The second band is in the form of a circle around the Pacific Rim, which includes Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, Kamchatka in Russia, south pacific island nations and New Zealand in the west. The eastern part of the circle includes Alaska, California, Pacific, North-West parts of United States, Western Canada, Central America, South American countries of Colombia, Peru, Chile, and Ecuador. This circum pacific band is also known as the Ring of Fire [ASC India] Intra plate earthquakes This type of earthquake occurs far from the plate boundaries and this type of earthquakes are less frequent compare to the inter plate earthquake. This type of earthquakes are also capable of releasing the same amount of energy that is released during the inter plate earthquake and this type of earthquakes are also capable of causing destruction and damage to the society and people. The energy released from this type of earthquake contributes only 1% of the annual seismic energy released globally. This type of earthquakes occur in Indian peninsula, central Indian Ocean, Central and Eastern United States, Eastern Canada, northern Europe, Australia, Brazil, Hawaii and in the Western parts of Africa. [ASC India] 2.2.2 Volcanic Earthquake Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to the volcanic activity which can cause threats like deformation of ground, cracking of ground and damage to buildings and other manmade structures. 2.2.3 Manmade Earthquake (Explosion, Collapse, Boring earth) 2.3 General Impacts of earthquake 2.3 Chapter Discussion and Conclusions 3 Resilience of Buildings 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Assessment of Building 3.3 Resilience to Structural Components of a Building 3.4 Improvisation in a Building 3.5 Chapter Discussions and Conclusions 4. Earthquake Hazard in India 4.1 Introduction India is the seventh largest country in the world covering the area of about 3,287,240  Km2 (Approx.) with the population of about 1.1 billion and it has a large area of its land which are likely to be affected by wide range of probable maximum seismic intensities. In the past 100 years the country was affected by many earthquakes in different parts, which were responsible for the loss of many lives, buildings and other man-made structures. Among the number of earthquakes that affected the country, the shallow earthquake had a magnitude of M=5.0 or more on the Richter scale, and the catastrophic earthquake that has occurred in the past had a magnitude of M=8.0 or more which struck in the areas like Kutch, Andaman Island and besides the Himalayas. This chapter discusses about damaging earthquakes that occurred in India and the main seismic regions in India. The different seismic regions are explained by illustrating the past earthquakes that occurred and its impact in the society. 4.2 Earthquake occurrences in India and the Neighborhood In the past 100 hundred years India has suffered four great earthquakes of magnitude 8.5 or more and imposing many causalities and economic loss. The earthquake which had the largest magnitude in India was recorded as M=8.7 which had its epicenter in Shillong plateau that took place in the year 1897. The other notable earthquake to mention is earthquake that took place in Sadiya region with a magnitude of M=8.6 which was so powerful that it even changed the courses of the rivers and disturbed the ground level. The below table 1 shows the list of damaging earthquakes that has occurred in India. It gives general information about the earthquake like the affected area of the earthquake, date and time of earthquake, affected areas location in latitude and longitude, magnitude of the earthquake and the number of deaths. Date (ddmmyyyy) Area Time in IST Latitude in Degrees Longitude in Degrees Magnitude M Deaths (Approximate value) 16.01.1819 Gujarat (Kutch) Mid Night 8.0 1500 26.08.1833 Bihar-Nepal 27.5 86.5 7.7 1500 12.06.1897 Assam (Shillong) 16:36 25.9 91.0 8.7 1600 08.02.1900 Kerala (Palghat) 03:11 10.7 76.7 6.0 Nil 04.04.1905 Himachal Pradesh (Kangra) 06:20 32.5 76.5 8.0 20000 03.07.1930 Assam (Dhubri) 02:33 25.8 90.2 7.1 Many 15.01.1934 Bihar-Nepal 14:13 26.6 86.8 8.3 14000 26.05.1941 Andaman 12.4 92.5 8 Many 23.10.1943 Assam 22:53 26.8 94.0 7.2 15-08-1950 Assam 19:39 28.7 96.6 8.6 1500 21.07.1956 Gujarat (Anjar) 21:02 23.3 70.0 7.0 115 28.10.1958 Uttar Pradesh (Kapkote) 30.0 80.0 6.3 Many 27.08.1960 Delhi 21:28 28.3 77.4 6.0 02.09.1963 Kashmir (Badgam) 07:04 33.9 74.7 5.5 In Hundreds 27.07.1966 Western Nepal 29.5 81.0 6.3 15.08.1966 Uttar Pradesh (Moradabad) 28.0 79.0 5.3 02.07.1967 Nicobar 9.0 93.4 6.2 11.12.1967 Maharashtra (Koyna) 04:21 17.4 73.7 6.5 200 13.04.1970 Andhra Pradesh (Bhadra-chalam) 17.6 80.6 6.5 23.03.1970 Gujarat (Broach) 07:23 21.7 72.9 5.7 30 19.01.1975 Himachal Pradesh 32.5 78.4 6.5 21.08.1988 Bihar Nepal 04:39 26.76 86.62 6.6 1003 20.10.1991 Uttar Pradesh (Uttar Kashi) 02:53 30.75 78.86 6.6 715 30.09.1993 Maharashtra (Killari) 03:55 18.07 76.62 6.3 7928 22.05.1997 Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur) 04:23 23.1 80.1 6.0 38 29.05.1999 Uttar Pradesh (Chamoli) 00:35 30.3 79.56 6.5 63 26.01.2001 Gujarat (Kachchh or Bhuj) 08:46 23.6 69.8 7.7 13805 08.10.2005 Jammu Kashmir (Kashmir) 09:20 34.5 73.6 7.6 India-1400 Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK)-73726 Table 1- Some Better Known damaging Earthquakes in India [IITK, book] 4.3 Main Seismic Regions The main seismic regions in India are divided into 7 seismic regions they are Kashmir and Western Himalayas Central Himalayas (including Nepal Himalayas) Northeast India Indo-Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan Cambay and the Rann of Kutch Peninsular India Andaman and Nicobar islands. These seismic regions are summarized below (1) Kashmir and Western Himalayas This region covers the states of Jammu Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub mountain parts of Punjab. This area has suffered a history of 180 earthquakes of magnitude M=5 or more. Kangra earthquake of April 4, 1905 had a maximum intensities of magnitude M=8.0, and it caused a large scale destruction in the area and resulted in loss of 20,000 lives, which are mainly due to the collapse of structures made of brick, stone and earthen materials. Other notable damaging earthquakes in this region are the Budgam earthquake of September 2, 1963, Anantnag earthquake of February 20, 1987, Dharmshala earthquake of April 26, 1986 and Kashmir earthquake of October 8, 2005. During the Kashmir earthquake more than 75,000 lives are lost due to the collapse of stone buildings. (2) Central Himalayas This region covers the mountain and sub mountain regions of Uttar Pradesh, sub mountain regions of Bihar and Nepal. This area has experienced more than 135 earthquakes of magnitude M=5 or more and they are mostly occurred in the eastern and western parts. The eastern side of this region has experienced a very high seismicity and the earthquake to mention in this region is Bihar-Nepal earthquake occurred on January 15, 1934 which had a magnitude of M= 8.4 and destroyed thousands of homes and 13,000 people were killed in this earthquake. The western side of this region has experienced earthquakes of magnitude from M=6 and the maximum magnitude of M=7.5 was recorded during the Dharchula earthquake in 1916. The central side of this area has not experienced any earthquakes. The most recent earthquake occurred in the central Himalaya is on August 20, 1988 with the magnitude of M=6.7 and it affected northern parts of Bihar and eastern Nepal. (3) North East India This region covers the entire Indian Territory to the east of north Bengal. This seismic region is comprises of the neighboring countries like Myanmar (Burma) and Bhutan. This region is one of the most severe seismic regions in the world, which has a history of experiencing 520 earthquakes of magnitude M=5, among which 24 earthquakes had magnitude of M=7 or more. The largest earthquake in this region is Assam earthquake of 1897 which had a magnitude of M=8.7 and is the largest earthquake ever recorded in this region. The other earthquake which has similar magnitude to Assam earthquake is the Sadiya earthquake of 1950 which had a magnitude of M=8.6. It is the only earthquake which has been rarely repeated in the world. As these earthquakes had a high magnitude it resulted in change of topographical levels, but the economic loss and loss of life was less as the population in 1897 was less and in 1950 the earthquake occurred in a less populated area. Other reasons for reduced damage of these earthquakes is that the type of construction in Assam was different to the present situation, construction during that period had a practice of using bamboo posts and Ekra (Wattle and Daub) walling was light and strong which remained undamaged during these earthquakes. The present type of construction is different from the traditional Assam type construction, where the construction materials are changed bamboo and Ekra to bricks and stones, non-engineered buildings have increased with the increase in population. As a result there is a possibility for more damages to life and property during future earthquakes. (4) Indo Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan This region covers Rajasthan, Haryana, plains of Punjab, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal situated to north of the Vindhyas. This area has suffered from 110 earthquakes of magnitude of M=5 or greater are known to occur in this region. Most of the seismic activities have occurred on the Moradabad faults, Lucknow, Patna faults and the Sohna fault near Delhi. The maximum seismic activity occurred in this area is recorded as M=6.7, which shows that this is a moderate to minor seismic zone. (5) Cambay and the Rann of Kutch This region is comparatively smaller than the other regions classified here, but this region has suffered from one of the worst earthquakes in India. This region has suffered from 20 earthquakes of minimum magnitude as M=5.0 and two other earthquakes of magnitude M= 7.0 and M=8.0 this earthquake occurred in Rann of Kutch in the year 1819 by killing 2000 people and destroying the town of Bhuj. Similarly the city of Anjar was also destroyed by an earthquake in 1956. But the most destructive earthquake of this area is the recent Kachchh earthquake in January 26, 2001, which had a magnitude of M=7.7 and it resulted in the loss of 14,000 people, destroying about 230,000 buildings and damaging more than 800,000 buildings. Many reinforced concrete frame buildings were destroyed due to the impact of this earthquake. The main reason for the failure of these buildings is due to bad design and construction practice. This region is considered to be severe to moderate seismic region. (6) Peninsular India and Lakshadweep islands This region is more stable compared to other region as this region is a pre Cambrian shield and it does not have any adjacent plate boundaries. The type earthquakes occurred here are Intra plate earthquake. This region has experienced 32 earthquakes with average magnitude M= 5.0 and maximum magnitude of M=6.5. The maximum magnitude was recorded during the Koyna earthquake of 1967. Most destroying earthquake in this region is the Marathwada earthquake of M=6.4 occurred in the year 1993 which took the lives of 8000 people. As this region has experienced very less seismic activity, this area is considered to be less to moderate seismic region. (7) The Andaman Nicobar Island This region is highly seismic and has suffered from 190 earthquakes with average magnitude of M=5.0 and the maximum magnitude of M=8.1. The giant earthquake of M=8.1 occurred in the year 1941 and caused severe damages to the main town of Port Blair by damaging the civil and military installations. This area was indirectly affected during the Sumatra earthquake on December 24, 2004 which had a magnitude of M=9.3 and was the cause for the tsunami. The use of unreinforced masonry in this area is increasing with the rise in population, from which it is evident that the risk of more damages in the future events. 4.4 The Seismic Hazard Zoning Map The seismic zoning map of India has been standardized by the Bureau of Indian Standards which is given in the earthquake design resistant code of India (IS: 1893-Part 1, 2002, fig 2). According to this seismic zoning map, the seismic zones have been revised from its previous map which had 5 or 6 zones to 4 zones based on the records of seismic activity in India. The 4 seismic zones are classified on the expected probable intensities on 12 point Modified Mercalli intensity scale or Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK). The four seismic zones are zone 2, 3, 4 and 5. The seismic zoning map of India is given below which shows the different seismic zones in India. [Jalandhar, book] Figure Seismic Zoning Map of India Image Courtesy [http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/images/zone_map.jpg] Zone 2 This zone has the least amount of seismic activity experienced in India and this zone is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VI or less. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.1 g, and this factor is considered by the Engineers in the structural designing of earthquake resistant structures. Zone 2 seismic area in India is less compared to other zones. [Jalandhar, relief, seismo, book] Zone 3 This zone has moderate amount of seismicity and this zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VII. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.16 g or 10-20 % of gravitational acceleration. This zone covers the cities like Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Surat, Mumbai, Agra, Bhiwandi, Nasik, Kanpur Pune, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Asansol, Kochi Kolkata, Varanasi, Bareilly, Lucknow, Indore, Jabalpur, Vijayawada, Dhanbad, Chennai, Coimbatore, Mangalore, Kozhikode, Trivandrum, and Andaman Nicobar islands. [Jalandhar, relief, seismo, book] Zone 4 This zone has high seismicity and this zone is classified as High Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK VIII. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.24 g or 20-30% of gravitational acceleration. This zone This zone covers the cities like Dehradun, New Delhi, Yamuna Nagar, Patna, Meerut, Jammu, Amritsar, and Jalandhar. [Jalandhar, relief, seismo, book] Zone 5 This zone has highest seismicity in India and this zone is classified as Very High Damage Risk Zone. This zone is expected to have probable occurrence of MSK IX or more. In this zone the area which has trap or basaltic rock are more prone to earthquakes. The horizontal ground acceleration in this zone is 0.36 or 30-40 % of gravitational acceleration and this is the peak value of gravity that is experienced during a Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE). This covers cities like Guwahati and Srinagar. Punjab, Kashmir, western Himalayas, central Himalayas, Northeast India and Rann of Kutch also fall in this zone. [Jalandhar, relief, seismo, book] Seismicity Map of India Seismicity map gives the relative frequency and distribution of earthquakes in a given zone. Below is the seismicity map of India, it clear shows the distribution of earthquakes in India and the neighborhood countries. The green stars represents the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M=5.0 to 5.9, blue stars represent the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude of M=6.0 to 6.9, pink stars represent the areas which has suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 7.0 to 7.9, red stars represent the areas which had suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 8.0 to 8.9., and yellow stars represent the areas suffered from earthquakes of magnitude M= 9.0 or above. C:UsersSalahudeenDesktopseismicity_map.jpg Figure Seismicity Map of India [http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/images/seismicity_map.jpg] 4.5 Damaging Effects of Earthquake Earthquakes can cause damage to the society and indirectly affect the economy of the country. Earthquakes are the greatest destroyers of man-made structures like buildings, power plants, bridges, dams etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Generally when a person thinks about the effects of an earthquake, ground shaking comes to a persons mind, but ground shaking is not the only effects of an earthquake; there are possibilities for other natural hazards like landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis. These hazards are directly related to earthquake, as they are caused due to direct impact of an earthquake. Other possible hazards are cracking of dam walls which can cause leakage of water and causing flood, falling of electricity poles can cause live wires to be exposed and can trigger a fire, damage of underground gas pipelines and can trigger a fire, damage of underground water pipelines this could be difficult in case of controlling fire. [UWIE seismic] Some of the possible damaging effects of an earthquake are shown in the flowchart below (fig 3). An earthquake can cause two events like surface rupture or seismic waves. The surface of the earth ruptures during an earthquake, which shifts the surface and causes the building to collapse, resulting in personal injury or loss of life and loss of properties. If the surface rupture takes place in the ocean it produces a sea wave/tsunami and can cause flooding in the nearby coastal areas. Seismic waves created as a result of earthquake causes the surface of earth to shift. Surface shifts can lead to dynamic settlement of rock wedge or soil liquefaction and cause damages to manmade structures. Surface shifts can cause slope movements on the path of river and creating a barrier to form a natural dam and cause flooding in the nearby area. Surface shifts can directly affect the buildings and structures and cause fire or flood. It is clear that earthquake does not kill people, other events whi ch are triggered due to earthquake only kills, so measures should be taken to withstand or overcome the following events of an earthquake. [Book] Tidal Waves or Tsunami Figure 3 Flow chart of damaging effects of an earthquake [book] Impact on Man/Society Personal injury Loss of belongings Psychological effects Sociological effects Overall earthquake effects Floods Non Structural Damage Collapse of structural components / fire/ flood (e.g. by dam break) Damage to building structures Natural river Damming Damage to building structures Slope Movement Primary effects Near Surface Shift Near Surface Shift Dynamic Settlement, Soil Liquefaction Coastal Floods Damage to building structures Near Surface Shift Near Surface Shift Near Surface Shift Seismic Waves Surface Rupture Earthquake of Magnitude M = 5- 8.7 Geologic effects of Ground Shaking During an earthquake a person can observe the shaking of the ground, the shaking duration depends on the size of the earthquake i.e. its magnitude, distance from epicenter, amplitude, location and its regional geology. Shaking of ground can cause the structure to collapse, shaking of ground also depends on the type of soil, if the soil is soft and loose the shaking will be more, (see fig.4) if the soil is tight and compactly packed the shaking will be less. It is important to make sure that the structures are built on hard ground or on the hard rock. If there is a need to build structure on the soft surface, it has to be compacted before constructing. The epicenter of an earthquake also depends on the duration of shaking, nearer the epicenter more the duration of shaking. Ground shaking also depends on the amplitude; amplitude will be high with increase in the size of the earthquake. [Geology] C:UsersSalahudeenDesktopCapture3.JPG Figure Regional Geology of Shaking [geology] Figure [Landslides]Landslides and liquefactionC:UsersSalahudeenDesktoplandslide.JPG Landslides are defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope due to gravity, they can occur on any terrain with suitable conditions of soil, moisture, and the angle of slope. Landslides can be triggered by rains, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes, and other man made causes like grading, terrain cutting and filling etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Manmade structures are not the only affected due to stress of the seismic waves, natural structures like mountain slopes and hillsides also fail due to the stress of the seismic waves. In India the most vulnerable regions for landslides are Himalayas and Western Ghats. [Landslides 1, 2] In the below fig.5 is a graph showing the cumulative number of fatalities since September 2002 in India and China. The number of deaths caused due to the earthquake induced landslides is clearly shown which approximates 40,000 fatalities during both the Kashmir earthquake and Wenchuan earthquake. [Landslides] Tsunamis Figure Tsunami InitiationTsunami is a Japanese term that means harbor wave, they are generally confused with tidal waves but they both are different. Tsunamis are caused by a sudden vertical offset in the ocean floor triggered by underwater earthquakes, undersea landslides and undersea volcanic deformation. The sudden offset of the ocean floor changes the elevation of the ocean and initiates a water wave that travels outward from the region of sea-floor disruption which is shown in fig 6.C:UsersSalahudeenDesktoptsu 3.png In 26 December, 2004, a tsunami wave hit the countries situated around the Bay of Bengal. The tsunami wave was triggered by an earthquake of magnitude M=8.9 which had its epicenter in the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. The damage of this tsunami in India almost affected 876 villages in south India with an area of 4000 hectares and it affected population of 3.5 million. [Tsunami] It is clear that the number of people died as a result of an earthquake is less when compared to the deaths caused by the triggering events following an earthquake. 4.6 Earthquake Prediction 4.7 Earthquake Hazard risk to Urban Areas 4.8 Chapter Discussions and Conclusions 5. Earthquake Resistant Structure 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Classification of Seismic Designs 5.3 Comparison of Seismic practices in India and Abroad 5.4 Chapter Discussion and Conclusion 6. Case Study Bhuj Earthquake 6.1 Introduction and Methodology 6.1.1Case Study as Research Methodology 6.1.2 Case Study Design 6.2 Damage Assessment 6.3 Factors influenced the earthquake damage 6.3.1 Type of Building Construction 6.3.2Quality of materials 6.3.3 Liquefaction 6.4 Chapter Discussion and Conclusion 7. Discussions 8. Conclusion

Control System- Pressure Regulator

A type or certain group of elements that function together as a unified whole, is a system. This widened description thus gives some meaning to control systems as a whole. By re-establishing the basic principles and functions worked out, a system's limit can be extended to include little or more characteristics just as long as each singular variable contributes in a way to the particular system activity. This explains that the system does not halt interaction to other systems or peripherals. In the process industry, the term control system is sometimes normally used to specify a process, and the apparatus basically required to run the process. The system is tested with various actions so it will conform to a standard, these include; load, commands and disturbances which cause it to respond in some individual manner. A system is best made so that it will respond positively. In order for a system to act in the way prescribed is to control the system. The basic concept of comparing the measured and prescribed system performance, and then taking any action to change the process thereby minimizing errors, is called negative feedback. The system can vice-versa be called a closed-loop control system, or a negative feedback control system. To make a system automated it should be mechanized. To create the maintenance of a constant value in a control, is not the major primary objective of control; once the prescribed behavior is achieved, the control function is fulfilled. Although the use of control measure is in most cases involved with mechanical equipment, they can also be used in fields such as (e.g. in the social, biological or in different other systems). The science of achieving control, by using or not using feedback, is the method of control theory. This is applicable to system control in general. Most control systems have evolved by the practice of trial and error, for the critical design of system controls with the need for extensive analysis of two factors, the control devices and the process. 2.0 TYPES OF REGULATORS- 2.1 SIMPLE PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM (SELF OPERATED REGULATOR): For a typical uncontrolled system, let us say it is required for it to provide a standard pressure, P, at a given measure and that the discharge, Q2, provides for an external system, which, its need for this fluid varies. At a given time interval, the external system regulates valve No. 2 to comply with the needed specifications. The curves given in Fig 1.0 FIG 1.1 Shows the way in which it alters the process of the pressure. In earlier results in time, t1, some initial stable condition exists where, Q1 and Q 2 are of the same and the process pressure is significantly at the aimed equivalent. A level change occurs at, Q1 when time is at, t1, this reduces the fluid mass between the valves. This is followed mainly by a drop in the process pressure. For a system which is uncontrolled the pressure decline will continue until the drop over valve No. 1 is enough again to build equal flows and a new constant state functioning condition is gained. The procedure can be controlled; i.e. the suitable needed pressure can be managed if the significant rise in Q1 were gotten by increasing the opening of valve No. 1. A typical way of doing this is given in Fig 1.1. FIG 1.3 The response for the process pressure is sent to a spring opposed diaphragm that gives free way for the pressure to manoeuvre the valve. In a working mode, the contraction in the spring will be set so that at some constant state working condition the required process pressure, acting on the diaphragm section, this balances the force that the spring carries. The aimed process pressure is known as a set point. Changes from the set point which is caused by load variation will be controlled because as the process pressure differs, the matching force given back to the diaphragm will regulate the valve position to reduce the pressure variance to a certain range of value around the set point. The careful control of the pressure will rely on how big a flow change the regulator will be able to carry out for a minimal amount of pressure. The regulator flow change to process pressure change is the gain of the regulator and this will rely on the diaphragm area, the valve size, stiffness of the spring, and the general pressure drop over it. The corrective activity done by the regulator is proportional to the change of the process from its set point. Such an element is called the proportional or proportional mode, control. When using the proportional control, the corrective action can only carry on when some different outlines exist. The final pressure change needed to completely stroke the regulator is known as the proportional band and it shows around what limits the regulator can control. FIG 1.4 illustrates where the process measurement supplies the whole valve actuating force, this is known as self-operated regulators. FIG 1.5 The above demonstrates a self operated regulators made for the control of temperature, flow and level. The operation method is practically the same with the pressure regulator. They are widely used in various applications of specialty in the industrial field. 3.0 PILOT OPERATED PRESSURE REGULATOR: This regulator uses a little pilot valve assembly to aide in actuating the main valve. Generally the pilot operated pressure regulator shown in Fig 1.6 FIG 1.6 when in operation, the process pressure works on the lower side of the main diaphragm which is similar to the self operated regulator. The pilot also quantifies the process pressure and, upstream pressure as power source, changes the loading on the top side of the main diaphragm. The diaphragm serves as an amplifier, generally bearing a gain from process to loading pressure of 10 to 20 psi per psi. This is because of both feed back path ways one through the direct one and the other through the pilot, the regulators demonstrate a more complex control action than the simple proportional mode. The pilot operated regulator are available for all the four major process variables; flow, pressure level and temperature even though the direct acting path is left out in some cases. With the pilot operated regulator it is generally easier to achieve a greater regulator gain. Both the self and pilot operated regulators share similar attributes that have, in many cases, brought about some restraints. In some instances like if the fluid is corrosive, loaded with contaminants or of very high temperature, apparent issues may arise. Essentially at most one of the diaphragm casings, should, be able, to hold the maximum process pressure. The most possibly vital deficiency, from, the basis that static and dynamic elements of any specific form of process; i.e., level, pressure, etc. can differ respectively from one installation to the other so the choice of the amount of gain to be designed into a regulator without causing any sort of system instability, is made a very tasking procedure. It means that the regulator can not be altered to suit the characteristics of the process to which it has been applied. This Fig 1.7 is the block diagram of a pilot operated regulator FIG 1.7 3.1 INSTRUMENT CONTROL: The pressure control system illustrated in Fig 1.8 FIG 1.8 it surpasses all the limits considerably attached to the self and pilot operated regulators. It generally contains three detachable hardware pieces: the process controller, the control valve, and the valve actuator. Other controllers such as this stands for one of an entire family of peripherals generally referred to as instruments. The process fluid touches only the control valve and its sensing element. This is a small part which has no orifice and could get contaminated. They can be made from several types of materials to achieve high standard against corrosion and temperature. An external source for pneumatic power is used for working parts in the controller to provide clean, dry instrument air. The air supply is regulated so that the pressure is at a standard rate and that the controller and actuator are made to work with a standard pressure signal level, free of the process fluid pressure. A regular standard pressure supply is within 20 psig with a usual ranging of signal within 2 to 15 psig. They are ready for use with numerous sensing element and they give the significance of the process which is being controlled. They are commonly known as indicative controllers. To minimize trial and error the set point is normally calibrated to generally prevent subsequent start ups. The Fig 1.8 is like most pneumatic controller models, it has two levels with an adjustable measure of response and amplification around both levels. The input variable moves an end of a beam which holds the air flow through a nozzle. The pressure of the nozzle is sensitive to the point of the beam itself. The pressure of the nozzle performs on the top diaphragm of a pressure equal valve assembly that is the second amplifier level. As a result of the huge valve ports it is has the capacity to give an extreme flow progression to the actuator which works as a power amplifier. The pressure is given back to the amplifiers which moves the nozzle beams in a direction which opposes the sensing effect. Element motion ( i.e. negative feedback ). The three way valve behaves as a pressure divider and its regulation decides what amount of feedback should be consumed. Leaving the dynamics out, the controller can be seen as having a high gain movement path with a regulated gain response path. It provides only proportional control mode but its area of reach can be freely adjusted over a vast range by means of the pressure divider. The purpose of the integral mode is to remove any steady state process deviation and the reason for the deviation mode is to give an improved transient control. These modes improve the flexibility of the controller. 4.0 COMPUTER CONTROL- The reason for central control is to bring to a particular location, adequate information and hardware to allow an operator to control the plant variances, which are product yield and quality, and to manage the automated control of process variances, which are flow and temperature. In order for all duties to be carried out by the operator must have a sound knowledge of process variances, but how they should be. The adequate values for the process variances will differ as operating circumstances may be affected by things such as contamination, variations in reactants, load, changes in the products wanted or quality. The set points calculation can be made from the plant requirements and information about the plant operating elements. The early use of digital computers for process controls was for plant performance calculation the whole system works in an automated form sampling of transmitter signals. The optimizing of control and direct digital controls in Fig 1.9 FIG 1.9 Illustration of the hierarchy control as given in FIG 2.0 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. An Introduction to Hardware .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 83-92. 5.0 CONTROL ELEMENTS- 5.1 BASIC ELEMENT: Any system can be broken down into various divisions for understanding it's rather important to consider two levels of dub divisions. The first are those components in a control loop that are manufactured, tested, purchased and even design as standalone pieces of equipments. 5.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL DEVICES: The mathematical representation of physical devices can be done with the use of the fundamental physical laws which include Ohm's Law Newton's Laws, flow equations, conservation of mass and energy, etc. The use of impedance is often but not always helpful when deriving a mathematical model when a system is dynamic there is a circumstance which is forcing the change. This force is always some kind of potential energy .When a change occurs that is the dynamic system which is a movement known as flux. This flux generally depends on the physical characteristics of the system. Some forms of flux are shown in Table 1.0. TABLE 1.0 Impedance shows the mathematical relationship between potential and flux, it is the ratio of an increase change in potential to an increase change in flux. EQUATION. 1 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Basic Elements.1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 93-94. 6.0 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM The performance of a process control system is calculated by considering the system's output to the set point. The difference between both amounts is error or system deviation .The response of a regulatory system, for a step increase in load. Many standard words are defined in the schematic and several of them are used to describe the mistakes which might occur. It is obvious that no certain way such as settling time, maximum value of transient deviation, steady- state deviation gives a measure of system performance. Different approaches methods have been used for the error index. A tank which has several sources of flow as given in Fig 2.1 can be easily described by using block diagrams and flow components. For easy understanding lets say Pc = constant. The equation for flow is: PRESSURE PROCESS STEADY FLOW (FIG 2.1) In order to illustrate the nature of a process control system consider Fig 2.2 for the control equipment has a valve, diaphragm, actuator, and a locally mounted PI measuring controller FIG 2.2 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Process Dynamics .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 202-204. 7.0 ACCURACY AND SENSITIVITY 7.1 ACCURACY â€Å"In general, the greatest accuracy-closest regulation-is obtained with the largest diaphragm and shortest range which will give the required control pressure. For example, a control pressure of 40 psig can be obtained with any of the three ranges in model RP-1065-A and with two of the three ranges in model RP-1066-A. Closest regulation can be expected with the 5 – 50 psi range of model RP-1066-A (size 10 diaphragm). See table for â€Å"Accuracy of Regulation.† Unbalanced port areas are not considered in the values tabulated. Small amounts of unbalance are present in single-seated 1/2†³ â€Å"A† valves and in semi-balanced double seated valves 2†³ through 4†³. Under conditions of high pressure drop, the forces opposing valve closure will influence selection of the regulator model (diaphragm size). See â€Å"Accuracy of Regulation† tabulation for actual port area unbalance† FIG 2.3 [WWW] http://www.skilenvironmental.com/documents/160_RP1065A_1066A.pdf In addition what changes can made to the diaphragm area, spring rate, orifice size, and inlet pressure, the regulator accuracy can be enhanced by simply putting a pitot tube. Internal to the regulator, the pitot tube joins the diaphragm cover with a low-pressure, high velocity region inside the regulator body. The pressure in the area will be lower than P2 when it goes downstream. By using a pitot tube to calculate the lower pressure, the regulator change in its response to any change in P2. The pitot tube tricks the regulator. 7.2 SENSITIVITY The principle of operation and loading, actuating, and control components are in all designs. Many regulators use simple wire coil springs to control the downstream pressure. Numerous size springs are used to allow regulation of the secondary pressure around a target range. The needed pressure is at the centre one-third of the rated outlet pressure range. In the lower end of the pressure range, the spring loses some sensitivity; at the high end, the spring close to it maximum capacity. Regulators can use diaphragm or piston to detect or sense downstream pressure. Diaphragms are more sensitive to pressure variations and react quicker. They can operate where sensitive pressure settings are needed (lower than 0.04 psi). Pistons generally are more rugged and give a larger effective sensing area in a particular size regulator. The functional difference between general-purpose and precision regulators is the degree of control accuracy of the output pressure. Output pressure accuracy is gotten by the droop due to flow changes (regulator characteristics). [WWW] http://machinedesign.com/article/pneumatic-pressure-regulators-1115 8.0 FEEDBACK This section will develop the performance limitations imposed by a particular load when a conventional flow control valve is utilized in the valve-actuator component. It will then show that the load versus flow characteristic of the forward loop can be modified very advantageously. Various techniques utilized in the past for this purpose, such as controlled actuator by-pass leakage and structural feedback, are compared with a new technique called dynamic pressure feedback (D.P.F.). The analytical work is fortified by reports of actual tests of a representative system. The electrohydraulic position servo can be represented by the block diagram shown in Fig 2.4. This diagram separates the valve-actuator integration from the hydraulic and structural compliance of the actuator. The diagram also represents the particular load case under discussion. The analysis of servo stability and performance is affected by the choice of position feedback location. Output position can be measured at the actuator or at the load. If the feedback is from the actuator position, the analytical task is made more difficult. However, it is apparent from the block diagram that the quantities Xp and X0 react in a proportional manner to inertia forces. It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that the two cases should yield similar results. This discussion will be based on selection of feedback intelligence from the load position, X0, due to the relative simplicity of analysis. However, a careful comparison of this simpler case with the more difficult to analyse case of actuator feedback position has been carried out. An analogue computer was utilized for this comparison. The results of the study confirmed that the two cases are really very similar in dynamic performance achievable. The use of actuator position feedback suffers some comparative penalty statically with respect to error introduced by external (load disturbance) forces.† [WWW] http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet;jsessionid=6464D27CC3E73FAFE7C6220F352B4F85?contentType=Article&Filename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/1270320604.pdf FIG 2.4 [WWW]http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet;jsessionid=6464D27CC3E73FAFE7C6220F352B4F85?contentType=Article&Filename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/1270320604.pdf 9.0 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT â€Å"Fluid pressure can be defined as the measure of force per-unit-area exerted by a fluid, acting perpendicularly to any surface it contacts (a fluid can be either a gas or a liquid, fluid and liquid are not synonymous). The standard SI unit for pressure measurement is the Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to one Newton per square meter (N/m2) or the KiloPascal (kPa) where 1 kPa = 1000 Pa. In the English system, pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure can be expressed in many different units including in terms of a height of a column of liquid. CONVERSION UNITS FOR COMMON UNITS OF PRESSURE (TABLE 2) PRESSURE TERMS RELATIONSHIP (FIG 2.5) Table lists commonly used units of pressure measurement and the conversion between the units. Pressure measurements can be divided into three different categories: absolute pressure, gage pressure and differential pressure. Absolute pressure refers to the absolute value of the force per-unit-area exerted on a surface by a fluid. Therefore the absolute pressure is the difference between the pressure at a given point in a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure or a perfect vacuum. Gage pressure is the measurement of the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Local atmospheric pressure can vary depending on ambient temperature, altitude and local weather conditions. The U.S. standard atmospheric pressure at sea level and 59à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½F (20à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) is 14.696 pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or 101.325 kPa absolute (abs). When referring to pressure measurement, it is critical to specify what reference the pressure is related to. In the English system of units, measurement relating the pressure to a reference is accomplished by specifying pressure in terms of pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or pounds per square inch gage (psig). For other units of measure it is important to specify gage or absolute. The abbreviation .abs' refers to an absolute measurement. A gage pressure by convention is always positive. A .negative' gage pressure is defined as vacuum. Vacuum is the measurement of the amount by which the local atmospheric pressure exceeds the absolute pressure. A perfect vacuum is zero absolute pressure. Fig 2.5 shows the relationship between absolute, gage pressure and vacuum. Differential pressure is simply the measurement of one unknown pressure with reference to another unknown pressure. The pressure measured is the difference between the two unknown pressures. This type of pressure measurement is commonly used to measure the pressure drop in a fluid system. Since a differential pressure is a measure of one pressure referenced to another, it is not necessary to specify a pressure reference. For the English system of units this could simply be psi and for the SI system it could be kPa. In addition to the three types of pressure measurement, there are different types of fluid systems and fluid pressures. There are two types of fluid systems; static systems and dynamic systems. As the names imply, a static system is one in which the fluid is at rest and a dynamic system is on in which the fluid is moving†. [WWW] http://www.scribd.com/doc/2339144/Understanding-Pressure-and-Pressure-Measurement 10.0 CONTROLLERS The major use of controllers is to detect errors in the variables and to create error correction messages that which is caused by the error. To complete this task the controller design must have an adjustable set point that can be comparison to the process variable. The error that is given is sent as a response for needed action to be carried out. The block diagram is given in Fig . The input could be as an input from the transmitter, which happens in the situation involving a receiver-controller. A three mode controller transfer function likely should be as given in the equation , the static gain has been resolved in two perspectives ; K is the nominal output and input spans and this would normally n=be unity for a receiver controller, and Kc is an adjustable measurement known as proportional gain. EQUATION. 2 The three modes stated above give the derivative, integral, and proportional modes respectively. FIG 2.6 Simpler controller designs employing one or two modes are often used. The basic combinations are P- Proportional only I- Integral only PI- proportional plus integral PD proportional plus derivative PID proportional plus integral plus derivative The transfer function may be derived from EQUATION. 2 by eliminating the appropriate terms. In the self operated regulator the actuator, controller and sensor are normally the same thing and with the same element. The controller has no other than the set point and has fixed gain and practically no adjustments. The transfer function is taken as: EQUATION. 3 Considering an example with a regulator with a set point of 5 psig and a flow capacity of 0.6, a temperature of 60 degree (Fahrenheit) and a pressure of 5 psig. The off set flow capacity will be 20 percent. The density can be determined with the use of the equation of state of a perfect gas as shown below: CALCULATION .1 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Control Components .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 115 – 148. 11.0 INPUT AND OUTPUT â€Å"This simple valve model has three states: OPEN, WORKING, and CLOSED. As the valve is the only component of the pressure-regulator that has state, the composite device, likewise, has only three states: [OPEN], [WORKING], and [CLOSED]. Suppose the input pressure is decreasing and the pressure-regulator is in state [WORKING], then dXFp = +, which causes A, the cross-sectional area available for flow to increase. This raises the possibility that A

Case Study Essay

1. Refer to Exhibit 3-3. How would a first-line manager’s job differ in these two organizations? How about a top-level manager’s job? Different managers perform at different levels and require different skills. To meet the demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. In Organization A, strong attention would be given to detail, with little innovation and risk taking. Teamwork would not be encouraged, and employees would be viewed as a means to an end. Strict controls would be placed on workers, and task achievement would be most important. The supervisor would have little latitude and would do things â€Å"by the book.† In Organization B, innovation and risk taking would be highly encouraged. The supervisor would have more autonomy in how to achieve goals. Employees would be given the opportunity to provide input, and a team approach would be used. People would be viewed as important contributors. The supervisor’s job would be more like that of a coach, encourager, and facilitator. 2. Describe an effective culture for a relatively stable environment and a dynamic environment. Explain your choices. An effective culture for a relatively stable environment would likely emphasize outcomes such as quality and productivity and would give significant attention to detail. It would not require high levels of innovation, risk taking, or aggressiveness. Conversely, an effective culture for a dynamic environment would likely em-phasize aggressiveness, innovation, risk taking, and team orientation. To stay on top of continual environmental changes, this organization would have a culture that celebrates productive work behaviors. 3. Classrooms have cultures. Describe your classroom culture, using the seven dimensions of organizational culture. Does the culture constrain your instructor? How? Educators today hear a lot about gaps in education – achievement gaps, funding gaps, school-readiness gaps. Still, there’s another gap that often goes unexamined: the cultural gap between students and teachers. 4. Can culture be a liability to an organization? Explain. organizational culture could be a liability. In the global environment, a society that discriminates on the basis of ethnicity or gender or in the exploitation of workers could experience a backlash from the reactions of consumers in other nations. 5. Why is it important for managers to understand the external forces that are acting on them and their organization? All outside factors that may affect an organization make up the external environment . The external environment is divided into two parts: Directly interactive: This environment has an immediate and firsthand impact upon the organization. A new competitor entering the market is an example. Directly interactive forces include owners, customers, suppliers, competitors, employees, and employee unions. Indirectly interactive: This environment has a secondary and more distant effect upon the organization. New legislation taking effect may have a great impact. indirectly interactive forces. These forces include sociocultural, political and legal, technological, economic, and global influences. Indirectly interactive forces may impact one organization more than another simply because of the nature of a particular business. 6. â€Å"Businesses are built on relationships.† What do you think this statement means? What are the implications for managing the external environment? organizations depend on their environment and their stakeholders as a source of inputs and a recipient of outputs. Good relationships can lead to organizational outcomes such as improved predictability of environmental changes, more successful innovations, greater degrees of trust among stakeholders, and greater flexibility in acting to reduce the impact of change. 7. What would be the drawbacks to managing stakeholder relationships? Stakeholder theory is widely recognized as a management theory, yet very little research has considered its implications for individual managerial decision making. But maybe the company’s stakeholders aren’t working to help the company instead they work for their own good maybe to steal or something else

Argumentative Essay - Junk Food - 1617 Words

Should the sale of junk food in school cafeterias be banned? In more traditional years, parents had to prepare packed lunch for their kids when going to school. However, in present times, most parents are already incapable of doing such things. This is because they lack the luxury of time with the hectic schedules that they have. Parents tend to just give money to their children to purchase what they need. Given this kind of situation, students are exposed to a variety of options and they are given the freedom to pick whatever they want. In terms of what they eat, students are tempted to choose the ones which happen to be unhealthy and low in essential nutrients like junk foods. For better or for worse, junk food has gone global; it is†¦show more content†¦Even though schools may be able to force the students to abide by the rules when they are inside the school, they still do not have full control over the students. Schools cannot stop the children from buying junk foods as soon as they step out from the school. In fact, â€Å"It is difficult to regulate junk food consumption through unsophisticated measures such as prohibition† (â€Å"House ban,† 2012). Although children may attempt to smuggle junk foods in school, I believe that this is just a problem of practicalities. In one survey, all 1,700 students were bounded to follow strict rules stating that no chips, fatty foods, sweets and fizzy drinks can be sold at school. Yet there was a neighboring fast food shop that allowed the students to access such foods. Parents and teachers fear that it would put a risk on the school’s healthy eating policy. As a result, resident Edward Copeland brought the case to the high court, where the court decided that the junk food shops should be closed during school hours to support the strict rules of the school (Borland, 2010). This implies that such loophole can be fixed if the school really wants to be part of the discipline formation of the students. Finally, schools should practice what they preach. Schools are not just a place for knowledge transfer but also for application. Kickbusch (2009) points out that â€Å"Students are easily influenced by authority figures, and educators do not realize that, in someShow MoreRelatedArgumentative Essays About Obesity1560 Words   |  7 Pagesthemselves to get that far into bad health(obesity)? (might be more of a Psychology question though..) A good one for looking at arguments relating to the fast food industry is Super-Size me that documentary, that might give you some more ideas about arguments, to look into some of the issues that Morgan Spurlock touches on, (size of food portions, advertising, health related problems of obesity, etc..) 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